Turkey - Water Resources Page
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Water Resources:
Turkey has a total land area of 779,452 km2 , which 765,152 km2 is land and the remaining 14,300 km2 is surface water. Rainfall accounts for an average of 501 billion m3 of water annually. It is estimated that 274 billion m3 of this returns to the atmosphere through evaporation and transpiration from soil and water surfaces and plants; 41 billion m3 feeds underground reservoirs through leakage and deep percolation; and 186 billion m3 runs off into seas or lakes. Around 6.9 billion m3 of water is added to the country's water potential through rivers of neighboring countries. Thus the renewable fresh (surface) water potential of Turkey is about 234 billion m3 , depending on climatic fluctuations. The total safe yield of ground water resources is estimated at 12 billion m3. Finally, it is estimated that the total (technically and economically) usable surface and ground water potential of Turkey is 110 billion m3 , with 95 billion m3 of this coming from internal rivers. 3 billion m3 from external rivers and 12 billion m3 from ground water resources.Turkey possesses 177,714 km of river, 203,599 hectares of lakes natural of lakes and 179,920 hectares of lakes created by dams and artificial lakes, an area which is increasing all the time. To review matters related to water resources, Turkey has been divided into 26 water collection regions. The country's great geographical and climatic variety means that its water supplies are often not to be found in the right place and at the right time to meet demand. The Average annual precipitation is 643 mm, but this figure conceals wide variation from region to region.In order to regulate the whole surface waters in the country the construction of 662 dams is required. It is obvious that the possibilities mentioned above require great amounts of investment and a long period of construction. The water supplies from these dams would be regulated to achieve the following: irrigation of 6 609 382 ha; drainage of 135 801 ha; flood control of 636 794 ha; conveyance of 7 726 hm3 of water to urban areas and generation of 121 884 MKwh of electric power by the hydroelectric power plants with a total capacity of 34 484 MW of generated electricity.
Water withdrawal: The total annual water withdrawal is 42.0 billion m3 for whole country by 2000. Estimated sectoral annual water requirements and water consumption in Turkey is given Table 1. and Table 4. It is understood by comparison of the latest two tables that; 30.6 /43.3 = 71% in total water resources development realized in 1990 and 79% in 1995 and 80% in 2000. The total development of water resources by public institutions in several sectors reached 32 billion m3 in 1994. His means that 14 % of the gross water potential (32/234), or 29 % of technically and economically usable potential (32/110) has been developed. Almost 75 % of these developed water resources are being used for agricultural purposes.
Wastewater: With rapid industrialization and urbanization, domestic waste, hospital waste and industrial waste have become a threat to soil purity. Legislative action was not taken until 1993 and is not being implemented. Much of the waste is dumped in rivers, streams and the sea, even though this is forbidden by law. The polluted water in turn pollutes the soil. Out of 17 polluted rivers, 11 are subject to the dumping of domestic waste and 16 for industrial waste, and the picture for water catchment areas is similar. The dumping of untreated waste threatens irrigation systems and drinking water supplies, and because of the intensive industrialization around Istanbul and the sewage produced by the conurbation, the Sea of Marmara has become heavily polluted. There were 200 species of fish in this sea, only a few of which now remain.
Irrigation and Drainage
Irrigation: In Turkey, water that can be used for agricultural purposes and the topography of irrigable farm land differ in features. Therefore, only 25.85 million ha of the 28.15 million ha of cultivated can be irrigated. Since the land that can be irrigated and the water resources are in different locations, under considerations of project economy the area of land that can be irrigated is accepted as 8.5 million ha. By the end of 1995, 4.5 million ha of land will be connected to the irrigation network, meaning that 47.8% of the 8.5 million ha of land that can be irrigated is now being irrigated. To organize the water regime in Turkey, the building of 473 dams of various sizes is under consideration and the most important investment in this respect is the Ataturk High Dam within the Southern Anatolia Project (GAP) now under construction. When this project, along with all the dams within it, is completed, 1.8 million ha of land will be opened up to irrigated farming and agricultural production will rise substantially.In addition to building irrigation networks, important projects are now being carried out for in-field development, flood control, land reclamation, drainage and drying.The supply and management of water resources plays a pivotal role in food production and security, and many countries, of which Turkey is one, have therefore devoted much attention to improving and expanding their irrigation systems. A total of 75 % of the funds allocated for agricultural investments is directed towards irrigation projects. The full completion of projects in this sector ranges between 15 and 20 years. In recent years, average area of irrigation projects implemented by the General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works (DSI) is around 60,000 ha while General Directorate of Rural Services (GDRS) is responsible for extending irrigation to nearly 15,000 ha annually. 3,3 million ha of land have been opened up to irrigation, resulting an estimated total of 4,5 million ha by the end of 1995.By the end of 1995, almost 3 million ha of land have been opened up to irrigation as a result of the efforts of public sector, with a further 1 million ha irrigated as a result of private initiatives, giving an estimated total of 4.5 million ha. Of this total, about 95 % is irrigated by surface methods (furrow, basin, border, or flooding). The remaining 5 % is watered mostly by hand-moved sprinklers and some micro irrigation, mainly in the Aegean and Mediterranean Regions.On-farm development projects (subsurface drainage, irrigation structures, land levelling, access roads, soil reclamation etc.) are effective tools for improving the efficiency of irrigation schemes and the GDRS is engaged to carry out such projects. These are relatively cheap to manage, but the success rate is hampered by the need for better synchronization between different implementing agencies and a greater involvement of the farmers.In Turkey, there are about 8.5 million ha of land economically and physically irrigable. Half of this area has already been equipped with irrigation infrastructure. The rapid expansion of irrigated lands helps to create rural employment and to alleviate migration from rural to urban areas. The average yield of irrigated land is 7.6 times that of dry farming land, and the average value-added per irrigated hectare is 2.6 times that of one rainfed hectare. Irrigated land, although constituting 17 % of total arable land, contributes 34 % to agricultural Gross Domestic Product (GDP) derived from crops
In addition to building irrigation networks, important projects are now being carried out for in-field development, flood control, land reclamation, drainage and drying.The supply and management of water resources plays a pivotal role in food production and security, and many countries, of which Turkey is one, have therefore devoted much attention to improving and expanding their irrigation systems. A total of 75 % of the funds allocated for agricultural investments is directed towards irrigation projects. The full completion of projects in this sector ranges between 15 and 20 years. In recent years, average area of irrigation projects implemented by the General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works (DSI) is around 60,000 ha while General Directorate of Rural Services (GDRS) is responsible for extending irrigation to nearly 15,000 ha annually. 3,3 million ha of land have been opened up to irrigation, resulting an estimated total of 4,5 million ha by the end of 1995.By the end of 1995, almost 3 million ha of land have been opened up to irrigation as a result of the efforts of public sector, with a further 1 million ha irrigated as a result of private initiatives, giving an estimated total of 4.5 million ha. Of this total, about 95 % is irrigated by surface methods (furrow, basin, border, or flooding). The remaining 5 % is watered mostly by hand-moved sprinklers and some micro irrigation, mainly in the Aegean and Mediterranean Regions.On-farm development projects (subsurface drainage, irrigation structures, land levelling, access roads, soil reclamation etc.) are effective tools for improving the efficiency of irrigation schemes and the GDRS is engaged to carry out such projects. These are relatively cheap to manage, but the success rate is hampered by the need for better synchronization between different implementing agencies and a greater involvement of the farmers.In Turkey, there are about 8.5 million ha of land economically and physically irrigable. Half of this area has already been equipped with irrigation infrastructure. The rapid expansion of irrigated lands helps to create rural employment and to alleviate migration from rural to urban areas. The average yield of irrigated land is 7.6 times that of dry farming land, and the average value-added per irrigated hectare is 2.6 times that of one rainfed hectare. Irrigated land, although constituting 17 % of total arable land, contributes 34 % to agricultural Gross Domestic Product (GDP) derived from crops
Institutional environment:Large number of organizations, governmental and non-governmental, have direct and indirect interest in the aspects of water resources development and conservation. Governmental and non-governmental organizations are at the water users level for execution, operation and maintenance of the projects.
Governmental organization;
- The General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works ( DSI ) was established in 1954 and is under the Ministry of Public Works and Settlements. DSI is responsible for major irrigation projects, flood control, swamp reclamation, hydropower development, and water supply to cities with population over 100,000.. In recent years, it has been responsible for extending irrigation to an average of nearly 50,000 ha per year.
- General Directorate of Rural Services (GDRS), the successor to the Soil and Water General Directorate (TOPRAKSU) and GDRS is under Prime Ministry (Governed by one of the State Ministers). GDRS is responsible for on-farm works, construction of rural roads, village water supplies, small scale irrigation projects, soil conservation and land consolidation projects, researches on soil-water-plant relationships, as well as settlement and re-settlement activities. GDRS is responsible for extending irrigation to an average of nearly about 39 000 ha per year.
- General Directorate of Electrical Power Resources Survey and Development Administration (EIE) was established in 1935, is under the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources. EIE is responsible for conducting surveys on electrical energy (including hydropower), and for rational use and conservation energy. There is a close coordination between DSI and EIE in collecting hydrometric data and surveying hydropower resources.
- The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs (MARA) is responsible for the development of villages, the development of agriculture, assistance in the development of water and soil resources, carrying out investigations and research, planning programs and projects to meet the needs for protection and development of water and soil.
- The General Directorate of Agrarian Reform (GDAR) is responsible for certain land consolidation projects in areas declared as 'Reform Regions' by a Cabinet Decree.
As it is shown on Table 321, the cost of larger irrigation projects is higher than the smaller ones. Small scale irrigation project is defined as supplying less than 500 liters of water per second or irrigating less than about 1000 ha of land.
User Organization; In general, user organizations are responsible for operation and maintenance (O&M) of irrigation scheme transferred to them according to the agreement signed by the involved parties. The user organization are:
- Irrigation Group
- Irrigation Cooperative
- Water User Association
- Village Legal Entity
- Municipality
Legislation in the Water Sector: The Turkish Constitution of 1982 states that water resources are natural wealth of the country, and under the authority of the State, to be used for benefit of public. However, legislation about water rights and ownership is rather complex and should be revised and rearranged. The arrangement should be consider all technical , economical social and legal issues. This is very important especially in the regions where water resources are limited.Development of water resources are under the responsibility of the state, except some privately owned small springs and waters. Use of groundwater resources (more than 10 m below the ground) is arranged by a special law. Groundwater licenses are issued by DSI for each reservoir, when request by users. The licenses cover only right of use and utilization. The water use right can neither be transferred nor sold.There is no special law for surface water rights. Special legislation for the use of surface waters has been enacted only for hydropower production and thermal waters which are subject to prior authorization. On the other hand, private consumptive uses of surface water are not subject to any prior authorization. If any conflict arises among the users, various customary rules and regulations developed locally are applied. In incase conflict the court settlement is final. Framework for use of water is mentioned in Civil Code enacted in 1926, and need for special water law is also stated, but since then no special law has been promulgated.The drought period, especially in the western part of the country and deterioration in the quality of water put pressure on the water resources. The number of conflicts about the use of water increased. The need for revising the legislation to settle the problems was more evident.There is no general statutory order priorities in the Turkish laws. The priorities are established in the light of public interest, beneficial use criteria and national planning, on a case by case basis. DSI's priority list starts with drinking and industrial water supply, continues with irrigation, power generation, flood control, and ends with navigation.The main laws are relevant to the irrigation water sector and are given below:Law on established of the DSI (Law No: 6200, 1953). This the law by which the States Hydraulic Works had been established 6200 Coded Establish Law of DSI entered into force in 1954. The Law defines the duties and responsibilities of DSI. According to its law DSI also acts, to some extent, as an organization responsible for integration of water sector, although it is not stated specifically in the law.The Groundwater Law, coded 167 and entered into force in 1968, regulates the usage, development and protection of groundwater resources.DSI is authorized by the law which was enacted in 1968 to supply municipal water to cities whose population is more than 100,000 but the City Council should have a resolution that the project should be undertaken by DSI and the resolution should also be approved by the Council of Ministers. The City Council has to recover the cost of the project according to the law.The General Directorate of the Bank of Provinces (GDBP) is authorized by its establishment Law, coded 4759 (entered into force in 1975), to supply municipal water to all municipalities, irrespective of the size of municipality. GDBP is responsible for assisting the municipalities in financing, developing and construction the projects of infrastructure, including water supply and sewerage.The responsibility for drinking water supply to the villages was given to DSI by the Law of Rural Area Water Supply, coded 7478 and entered into force in 1960, and later on in 1964 the responsibility is transferred to the GDRS.The Laws define the organization and duties of the GDRS (Law No: 3202). According to its law GDRS, especially Article 2 says that GDRS is the responsible organization to carry out soil irrigation services such as land leveling , field-side channels, in-land irrigation and drainage facilities necessary to utilization for farming purposes of water obtained from irrigation facilities constructed by the state or any other agricultural areas.The Law of Environment, coded 2872 and into force in 1983, covers all environmental issues in a broader sense including the water.There are also some other laws related with water issues such as 927 coded the Law of Usage of Cold and Hot Mineral Waters and Thermal Springs, 1953 coded the General Sanitary Law, 2891 coded the Establishment Law of Electrical Power Resources Survey and Development Administration, Law of Operation of Lake Van, 3039 coded the Law of Paddy and Cultivation, and 4373 coded the Law of Flood Protection.
Trends: Development of water resources is an important issues for Turkey. An important factor is the need to expand irrigation in order to achieve higher yields in crop production. In Turkey, Per capita availability of potential water resources is 3,500 m3/year, which is high for the Middle East. However, water resources in Turkey are not evenly distributed. The river flow regimes are irregular and cannot be taken directly as usable resources.The share of irrigation in total consumption is around 75 % . Furthermore, it might go up as high as 80 % upon the completion of the Southeastern Anatolia project (GAP).The farmers are not charged any fees based on the resource value of the water they use for irrigation. They pay an annual area-based fee to recover the costs of operation, maintenance expenses, and the capital cost of the project.Turkey can be divided roughly into two regions with respect to Per capita potential water availability: a relatively water poor Western Region formed by Marmara, Aegean, and Central Anatolian regions of Turkey, and the rest of Turkey as the relatively water rich region. The Western Region is densely populated and heavily involved in cash crop production.As it is the case for all input subsidies in agriculture, water pricing sends wrong signals to the farmers and encourages the over-use of water resources. By the year 2010, per capita water availability in Turkey will be slightly less than 2,500 m3/year. Generally, countries with Per capita annual water availability between 1,000 and 3,000 m3 have major problems during drought years. Conflicts in sectoral allocation of water are likely to arise. The burden of adjustment will ultimately fall on the agricultural sector as the major consumptive user. Increase in water use efficiency of already existing irrigation systems will not only save water, but it will also improve the yields.The environmental problems related to water resources have reached quite dangerous levels in Turkey. The effectiveness of the laws and relations, which depend on the monitoring and enforcement abilities of the government, is yet to be seen.
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